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what to know on the indigenous faith traditions pdf

Diverse traditional beliefs and practices of African people

Local African ceremony in Benin featuring a zangbeto.

The traditional behavior and practices of African people are highly diverse beliefs that include diverse ethnic religions.[1] [2] Generally, these traditions are oral rather than scriptural and passed downwards from one generation to some other through folk tales, songs, and festivals,[iii] [iv] include belief in an amount of higher and lower gods, sometimes including a supreme creator or strength, belief in spirits, veneration of the dead, use of magic and traditional African medicine. Most religions can be described equally animistic[five] [6] with diverse polytheistic and pantheistic aspects.[7] [1] The role of humanity is generally seen every bit one of harmonizing nature with the supernatural.[i] [8]

Spread [edit]

An early-20th-century Igbo medicine man in Nigeria, West Africa

Adherents of traditional religions in Africa are distributed amidst 43 countries and are estimated to number over 100 million.[9] [ten]

Although most Africans today are adherents of Christianity or Islam, African people often combine the practice of their traditional beliefs with the do of Abrahamic religions.[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] The two Abrahamic religions are widespread across Africa, though generally concentrated in dissimilar areas. They have replaced indigenous African religions just are frequently adjusted to African cultural contexts and belief systems. Abrahamic religious beliefs, specially monotheistic elements, such equally the belief in a unmarried creator god, was introduced into traditionally polytheistic African religions rather early.[sixteen]

Followers of traditional African religions are also establish around the earth. In recent times, religions, such as the Yoruba religion, are on the rising. The faith of the Yoruba is finding roots in the Islands of the Caribbean area and portions of Cardinal and South America. In the United States, Voodoo is more predominant in the states forth the Gulf of United mexican states.[17]

Basics [edit]

Animism builds the core concept of traditional African religions. This includes the worship of tutelary deities, nature worship, ancestor worship and the conventionalities in an afterlife. While some religions adopted a pantheistic worldview, nigh follow a polytheistic system with various gods, spirits and other supernatural beings.[18] Traditional African religions also have elements of fetishism, shamanism and veneration of relics.[nineteen]

Traditional African, like most other ancient traditional religions around the world, were based on oral traditions. These traditions are not religious principles, but a cultural identity that is passed on through stories, myths and tales, from 1 generation to the next. The community and ones family, simply also the environs, plays an important role in ane's personal life. Followers believe in the guidance of their ancestors spirits. Among many traditional African religions, in that location are spiritual leaders and kinds of priests. These persons are essential in the spiritual and religious survival of the customs. There are mystics that are responsible for healing and 'divining' - a kind of fortune telling and counseling, similar to shamans. These traditional healers accept to exist called by ancestors or gods. They undergo strict training and learn many necessary skills, including how to employ natural herbs for healing and other, more than mystical skills, like the finding of a hidden object without knowing where it is. Traditional African religion believe that ancestors maintain a spiritual connection with their living relatives. Virtually ancestral spirits are more often than not expert and kind. Negative actions taken by ancestral spirits is to cause minor illnesses to warn people that they have gotten onto the wrong path.[20]

Information technology is suggested that most ancient traditional African religions, like most other indigenous folk religions around the world, were strictly polytheistic and lacked the belief in monotheistic concepts, such as a single supreme creator god. Native African religions are centered on antecedent worship, the belief in a spirit world, supernatural beings and gratis will (unlike the subsequently developed concept of religion). Deceased humans (and animals or important objects) still be in the spirit earth and tin influence or collaborate with the physical world. Polytheism was widespreaded in well-nigh of ancient African and other regions of the world, earlier the introduction of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. An exception was the short-lived monotheistic religion created past Pharaoh Akhenaten, who fabricated information technology mandatory to pray to his personal god Aton (see Atenism).[21] This remarkable change to traditional Egyptian organized religion was nonetheless reverted by the next Pharaoh of Egypt.[22] [23] [24] [25] High gods, forth with other more than specialized deities, ancestor spirits, territorial spirits, and beings, are a mutual theme among traditional African religions, highlighting the complex and advanced culture of ancient Africa.[25] [26] [27]

Traditional African religions generally concord the behavior of life after expiry (a spirit world or realms, in which spirits, but too gods reside), with some likewise having a concept of reincarnation, in which deceased humans may reincarnate into their family lineage (blood lineage), if they want to, or have something to exercise.[28]

Some researchers, including historical ethnolinguist Christopher Ehret, advise that certain monotheistic concepts, such equally the belief in a loftier god or strength (side by side to other many other gods, deities and spirits) were present within Africa, earlier the introduction of Abrahamic religions. However these ethnic concepts were substantially different from the monotheism institute in Abrahamic religions.[29] [thirty] [25] [31]

Traditional African medicine is as well directly linked to traditional African religions. According to Clemmont Eastward. Vontress, the diverse religious traditions of Africa are united past a basic Animism. According to him, the belief in spirits and ancestors is the most important element of African religions. Gods were either cocky-created or evolved from spirits or ancestors which got worshiped past the people. He besides notes that most modern African folk religions were strongly influenced past not-African religions, more often than not Christianity and Islam and thus may differ from the ancient forms.[32]

Nigerian American professor of ethnic African religions at Harvard Academy, Jacob Olupona summarized the many traditional African religions equally complex animistic religious traditions and beliefs of the African people before the Christian and Islamic "colonization" of Africa. Antecedent veneration has always played a "significant" part in the traditional African cultures and may be considered as fundamental to the African worldview. Ancestors (ancestral ghosts/spirits) are an integral part of reality. The ancestors are generally believed to reside in an ancestral realm (spiritworld), while some believe that the ancestors became equal in ability to deities.[33]

The defining line between deities and ancestors is often contested, but overall, ancestors are believed to occupy a higher level of beingness than living human beings and are believed to be able to bestow either blessings or illness upon their living descendants. Ancestors tin can offering communication and bestow good fortune and honor to their living dependents, but they can also make demands, such equally insisting that their shrines be properly maintained and propitiated. A belief in ancestors also testifies to the inclusive nature of traditional African spirituality by positing that deceased progenitors however play a part in the lives of their living descendants.

Olupona rejects the western/Islamic definition of Monotheism and says that such concepts could non reflect the complex African traditions and are too simplistic. While some traditions have a supreme existence (side by side to other deities), others take not. Monotheism does not reverberate the multiplicity of ways that the traditional African spirituality has conceived of deities, gods, and spirit beings. He summarizes that traditional African religions are not only religions, but a worldview, a style of life.[34]

Ceremonies [edit]

West and Central African religious practices generally manifest themselves in communal ceremonies or divinatory rites in which members of the community, overcome by force (or ashe, nyama, etc.), are excited to the signal of going into meditative trance in response to rhythmic or driving drumming or singing. One religious ceremony skillful in Gabonese republic and Cameroon is the Okuyi, practiced by several Bantu indigenous groups. In this state, depending upon the region, drumming or instrumental rhythms played by respected musicians (each of which is unique to a given deity or antecedent), participants embody a deity or ancestor, free energy or country of mind by performing singled-out ritual movements or dances which further enhance their elevated consciousness.[35]

When this trance-like state is witnessed and understood, adherents are privy to a way of contemplating the pure or symbolic embodiment of a particular mindset or frame of reference. This builds skills at separating the feelings elicited by this mindset from their situational manifestations in daily life. Such separation and subsequent contemplation of the nature and sources of pure energy or feelings serves to help participants manage and take them when they arise in mundane contexts. This facilitates better control and transformation of these energies into positive, culturally appropriate behavior, thought, and oral communication. Also, this practice can requite rise to those in these trances uttering words which, when interpreted past a culturally educated initiate or augur, can provide insight into appropriate directions which the community (or private) might take in accomplishing its goal.[36]

Spirits [edit]

Followers of traditional African religions pray to various spirits too as to their ancestors.[37] This includes also nature, elementary and animal spirits. The divergence betwixt powerful spirits and gods is often minimal. Most African societies believe in several "high gods" and a large corporeality of lower gods and spirits. At that place are also some religions with a single supreme being (Chukwu, Nyame, Olodumare, Ngai, Roog, etc.).[38] Some recognize a dual god and goddess such equally Mawu-Lisa.[39]

Traditional African religions generally believe in an afterlife, ane or more Spirit worlds, and Ancestor worship is an of import bones concept in generally all African religions. Some African religions adopted different views through the influence of Islam or even Hinduism.[twoscore] [41]

Practices and rituals [edit]

There are more similarities than differences in all traditional African religions.[42] The deities and spirits are honored through libation or sacrifice (of animals, vegetables, cooked food, flowers, semi-precious stones and precious metals). The will of the gods or spirits is sought by the believer as well through consultation of divinities or divination.[43] Traditional African religions embrace natural phenomena – ebb and tide, waxing and waning moon, rain and drought – and the rhythmic pattern of agriculture. According to Gottlieb and Mbiti:

The environment and nature are infused in every attribute of traditional African religions and civilization. This is largely because cosmology and behavior are intricately intertwined with the natural phenomena and surround. All aspects of weather, thunder, lightning, rain, twenty-four hours, moon, sun, stars, and and then on may get amenable to control through the cosmology of African people. Natural phenomena are responsible for providing people with their daily needs.[44]

For case, in the Serer religion, 1 of the near sacred stars in the cosmos is called Yoonir (the Star of Sirius).[45] With a long farming tradition, the Serer high priests and priestesses (Saltigue) deliver yearly sermons at the Xooy Ceremony (divination ceremony) in Fatick before Yoonir'due south phase in gild to predict winter months and enable farmers to start planting.[46]

Traditional healers are common in most areas, and their practices include a religious chemical element to varying degrees.

Divination [edit]

Since Africa is a large continent with many ethnic groups and cultures, there is not one single technique of casting divination. The practice of casting may be done with pocket-size objects, such every bit basic, cowrie shells, stones, strips of leather, or flat pieces of wood.

Some castings are done using sacred divination plates made of wood or performed on the ground (frequently inside a circle).

In traditional African societies, many people seek out diviners on a regular basis. There are more often than not no prohibitions against the practise. Augur (too known as priest) are also sought for their wisdom as counselors in life and for their noesis of herbal medicine.

Ubuntu [edit]

Ubuntu is a Nguni Bantu term pregnant "humanity". Information technology is sometimes translated equally "I am considering nosotros are" (as well "I am because you are"), or "humanity towards others" (in Zulu, umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu). In Xhosa, the latter term is used, but is often meant in a more than philosophical sense to hateful "the conventionalities in a universal bond of sharing that connects all humanity". It is a collection of values and practices that people of Africa or of African origin view as making people authentic man beings. While the nuances of these values and practices vary beyond unlike ethnic groups, they all point to one thing – an authentic individual human being is part of a larger and more than significant relational, communal, societal, environmental and spiritual earth.[47]

Virtue and vice [edit]

Virtue in traditional African faith is often continued with carrying out obligations of the communal aspect of life. Examples include social behaviors such as the respect for parents and elders, raising children appropriately, providing hospitality, and being honest, trustworthy, and courageous.

In some traditional African religions, morality is associated with obedience or disobedience to God regarding the way a person or a community lives. For the Kikuyu, according to their primary supreme creator, Ngai, interim through the lesser deities, is believed to speak to and exist capable of guiding the virtuous person as one's censor.

In many cases, Africans who have converted to other religions have still kept upward their traditional customs and practices, combining them in a syncretic mode.[48]

Sacred places [edit]

Some sacred or holy locations for traditional religions include Nri-Igbo, the Point of Sangomar, Yaboyabo, Fatick, Ife, Oyo, Dahomey, Republic of benin Urban center, Ouidah, Nsukka, Kanem-Bornu, Igbo-Ukwu, and Tulwap Kipsigis, among others.

Religious persecution [edit]

Traditions by region [edit]

This list is express to a few well-known traditions.

Cardinal Africa [edit]

  • Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa)
    • Bushongo mythology (Congo)
    • Kongo religion (Congo)
    • Lugbara mythology (Congo)
    • Baluba mythology (Congo)
    • Mbuti mythology (Congo)
  • Hausa animism (Chad, Gabon)
  • Lotuko mythology (S Sudan)

East Africa [edit]

  • Bantu mythology (Fundamental, Southeast, Southern Africa)
    • Gikuyu mythology (Kenya)
    • Akamba mythology (Kenya)
  • Dinka religion (South Sudan)
  • Malagasy mythology (Republic of madagascar)
  • Maasai mythology (Kenya, Tanzania, Ouebian)
  • Kalenjin mythology (Kenya, Republic of uganda, Tanzania)
  • Dini Ya Msambwa (Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, Republic of kenya)
  • Waaqeffanna (Federal democratic republic of ethiopia)
  • Somali mythology (Somalia)

North Africa [edit]

  • Ancient Egyptian religion (Arab republic of egypt, Sudan)
    • Kemetism
  • Punic religion (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya)
  • Traditional Berber religion (Morocco (including Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Republic of chad, Burkina Faso)
  • Hausa animism (Sudan)

Southern Africa [edit]

  • Bantu mythology (Central, Southeast, Southern Africa)
    • Lozi mythology (Republic of zambia)
    • Tumbuka mythology (Malawi)
    • Zulu mythology (South Africa)
  • Badimo (Republic of botswana)
  • San faith (Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa)
  • Traditional healers of South Africa
  • Ethnic religion in Zimbabwe

West Africa [edit]

  • Abwoi religion (Nigeria)
  • Akan religion (Ghana, Ivory Coast)
  • Dahomean religion (Benin, Togo)
  • Efik mythology (Nigeria, Cameroon)
  • Edo religion (Benin kingdom, Nigeria)
  • Hausa animism (Republic of benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Togo)
  • Ijo traditional faith (Ijo people, Nigeria)
  • Godianism (the umbrella religion of all traditional religions of Africa)
  • Odinala (Igbo people, Nigeria)
  • Asaase Yaa (Bono people (plant more often than not in Ghana), Ghana and Ivory coast)
  • Serer religion (A ƭat Roog) (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania)
  • Yoruba religion (Nigeria, Benin, Togo)
  • Vodou (Ghana, Benin, Togo, Nigeria)
  • Dogon religion (Mali)

African diaspora [edit]

Afro-American religions involve ancestor worship and include a creator deity along with a pantheon of divine spirits such every bit the Orisha, Loa, Vodun, Nkisi and Alusi, among others. In addition to the religious syncretism of these diverse African traditions, many likewise incorporate elements of Folk Catholicism including folk saints and other forms of Folk organized religion, Native American religion, Spiritism, Spiritualism, Shamanism (sometimes including the use of Entheogens) and European folklore.

Diverse "doctoring" spiritual traditions also be such equally Obeah and Hoodoo which focus on spiritual health.[54] African religious traditions in the Americas tin can vary. They can accept not-prominent African roots or can be well-nigh wholly African in nature, such as religions like Trinidad Orisha.[55]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ a b c Encyclopedia of African Religion (Sage, 2009) Molefi Kete Asante
  2. ^ Ndlovu, Tommy Matshakayile (1995). Imikhuba lamasiko AmaNdebele. Doris Ndlovu, Bekithemba S. Ncube. Gweru,GasiyaZimbabwe: Mambo Press. ISBN0-86922-624-10. OCLC 34114180.
  3. ^ Juergensmeyer, Marking (2006). The Oxford Handbook Of Global Religions. ISBN 0-19-513798-one.
  4. ^ South. Mbiti, John (1991). Introduction to African religion. ISBN 0-435-94002-3.
  5. ^ Kimmerle, Heinz (2006-04-eleven). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. ii (two): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  6. ^ Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:x.4135/9781452231648, ISBN9780761930471 , retrieved 2019-10-31
  7. ^ An African Story BBC Archived November 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  8. ^ What is religion? An African understanding Archived May 21, 2016, at the Wayback Automobile.
  9. ^ Britannica Volume of the Year (2003), Encyclopædia Britannica (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306
    According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 480,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who skillful traditional religions in Africa. Ian South. Markham, A World Religions Reader (1996) Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine is cited by Morehouse University equally giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still equally twoscore.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a thing of conjecture (see Amadu Jacky Kaba). The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who exercise indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Blackness Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, (June 2005), discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedias, placing Britannica's gauge as the most agreed on figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
  10. ^ Lugira, Aloysius M., African Traditional Religions (New York: Chelsea Business firm, 2009), p. 36 [in] Varghese, Roy Abraham, Christ Connectedness: How the Earth Religions Prepared the Mode for the Miracle of Jesus, Paraclete Press (2011), p. 1935, ISBN 9781557258397 [1] (Retrieved 24 March 2019)
  11. ^ Mbiti, John S (1992). Introduction to African faith. ISBN9780435940027. When Africans are converted to other religions, they often mix their traditional organized religion with the ane to which they are converted. In this way they are non losing something valuable, merely are gaining something from both religious customs
  12. ^ Riggs, Thomas (2006). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations. p. ane. ISBN9780787666125. Although a big proportion of Africans have converted to Islam an Christianity, these 2 earth religions have been assimilated into African culture, and many African Christians and Muslims maintain traditional spiritual beliefs
  13. ^ Gottlieb, Roger S (2006-11-09). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. ISBN9780195178722. Even in the adopted religions of Islam and Christianity, which on the surface appear to have converted millions of Africans from their traditional religions, many aspect of traditional religions are even so manifest
  14. ^ "US study sheds light on Africa'south unique religious mix". AFP. t doesn't seem to exist an either-or for many people. They can describe themselves primarily as Muslim or Christian and continue to practice many of the traditions that are characteristic of African traditional religion," Luis Lugo, executive managing director of the Pew Forum, told AFP.
  15. ^ Quainoo, Samuel Ebow (2000-01-01). In Transitions and consolidation of democracy in Africa. ISBN9781586840402. Even though the two religions are monotheistic, most African Christians and Muslims convert to them and yet retain some aspects of their traditional religions
  16. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Twelvemonth 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 9780852299562 p.306. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, every bit of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham,(A Globe Religions Reader. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse Academy as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, only notwithstanding equally forty.8% of the total. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. Run across Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who do indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number ii, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate every bit the nearly agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, equally being an outlier. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 45%. Information technology was likewise estimated in 2002 that Christians form 45% of Africa's population, with Muslims forming 40.half-dozen%.
  17. ^ "Ancient African Religion Finds Roots In America". NPR.org . Retrieved 2020-11-27 .
  18. ^ Kimmerle, Heinz (2006-04-eleven). "The world of spirits and the respect for nature: towards a new appreciation of animism". The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa. ii (2): 15. doi:10.4102/td.v2i2.277. ISSN 2415-2005.
  19. ^ Asukwo (2013). "The Need to Re-Anticipate African Traditional Organized religion".
  20. ^ "African Traditional Faith | South African History Online". www.sahistory.org.za . Retrieved 2021-06-nineteen .
  21. ^ Hornung, Erik (2001) [1995]. Akhenaten and the Organized religion of Calorie-free. Translated by Lorton, David. Ithaca, New York; London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8725-5. OCLC 48417401.
  22. ^ Hexham , Irvin ((1981), Lord of the Sky-King of the earth: Zulu Traditional Religion and Belief in the Skrelicsy God, Sciences Religieuses Studies in Organized religion, vol. 10: 273-78)
  23. ^ Busia, K. A. (1963). "Has the distinction between primitive and higher religions any sociological significance ?". Athenaeum de Sciences Sociales des Religions. 16 (1): 22–25. doi:ten.3406/assr.1963.1996.
  24. ^ Peterson, Olof. "Foreigen influences on the idea of God in African religions". {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ^ a b c Okwu AS (1979). "Life, Death, Reincarnation, and Traditional Healing in Africa". Result: A Journal of Stance. 9 (iii): 19–24. doi:10.2307/1166258. JSTOR 1166258.
  26. ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Folklore of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE. ISBN9781412981767.
  27. ^ Baldick, Julian (1997). Black God: the Afroasiatic roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religions. Syracuse University Printing:ISBN 0-8156-0522-half-dozen
  28. ^ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Republic of cameroon". Brawl State Academy; Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. There is an unwavering belief in life after death in traditional African religions with some fifty-fifty believing in reincarnation...
  29. ^ The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, by Christopher Ehret, James Currey, 2002
  30. ^ Ehret, Christopher (Nov 2004). "A Chat with Christopher Ehret". World History Continued (Interview). Interviewed by Laichas, Tom. Retrieved xxx May 2020. (Citation with date provided hither)
  31. ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle E, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE. ISBN9781412981767.
  32. ^ Vontress, Clemmont E. (2005), "Animism: Foundation of Traditional Healing in Sub-Saharan Africa", Integrating Traditional Healing Practices into Counseling and Psychotherapy, SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 124–137, doi:10.4135/9781452231648, ISBN9780761930471 , retrieved 2019-10-31
  33. ^ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2020-11-30 .
  34. ^ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 2015-ten-06. Retrieved 2020-xi-30 .
  35. ^ Karade, B. The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts, pages 39–46. Samuel Weiser Inc, 1994
  36. ^ Annemarie De Waal Malefijt (1968) Religion and Culture: an Introduction to Anthropology of Religion, p. 220–249, Macmillan
  37. ^ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2019-10-31 .
  38. ^ Willie F. Page (2001) Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, Volume 1, p. 55. Published by Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-4472-iv
  39. ^ Peter C. Rogers (2009) Ultimate Truth, Book ane, p100. Published by AuthorHouse, ISBN ane-4389-7968-1
  40. ^ Parrinder, East. One thousand. (1959). "Islam and Westward African Ethnic Religion". Numen. 6 (two): 130–141. doi:10.2307/3269310. ISSN 0029-5973. JSTOR 3269310.
  41. ^ Ndemanu, Michael T. (January 2018). "Traditional African religions and their influences on the worldviews of Bangwa people of Cameroon".
  42. ^ John S. Mbiti (1990) African Religions & Philosophy second Ed., p 100–101, Heinemann, ISBN 0-435-89591-v
  43. ^ John S. Mbiti (1992) Introduction to African Organized religion 2nd Ed., p. 68, Published by East African Publishers ISBN 9966-46-928-1
  44. ^ Roger South. Gottlieb (2006) The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology, p. 261, Oxford Handbooks Online ISBN 0-19-517872-6
  45. ^ Henry Gravrand (1990) La Civilisation Sereer Pangool, PP 21, 152, Published by Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Sénégal, ISBN two-7236-1055-1
  46. ^ Simone Kalis (1997) Médecine Traditionnelle, Religion et Divination Chez les Seereer Siin du Sénégal: La Coonaissance de la Nuit, 50'Harmattan, ISBN 2-7384-5196-nine
  47. ^ Mugumbate, Jacob Rugare; Chereni, Admire (2020-04-23). "Editorial: At present, the theory of Ubuntu has its space in social piece of work". African Journal of Social Work. 10 (1). ISSN 2409-5605.
  48. ^ Resolving the Prevailing Conflicts Between Christianity and African (Igbo) Traditional Religion Through Inculturation, by Edwin Anaegboka Udoye
  49. ^ Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Across the Silence and the Shame.
  50. ^ M. Darrol Bryant, Rita H. Mataragnon, The Many faces of religion and society (1985), Page 100, https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nAAAAYAAJ:"African traditional organized religion went through and survived this type of persecution at the hands of Christianity and Islam..."
  51. ^ Garrick Bailey, Essentials of Cultural Anthropology, 3rd edn (2013), p. 268:"Later, during the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries became agile in Africa and Oceania. Attempts by Christian missionaries to convert nonbelievers to Christianity took ii main forms: forced conversions and proselytizing."
  52. ^ Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, Towards and Understanding of the African Feel (1990), p. 161:"The role of Christian missionaries are a private interest group in European colonial occupation of Africa was a pregnant one...Collectively their activities promoted division within traditional African societies into rival factions...the picture denigrated African culture and religion..."
  53. ^ Toyin Falola et al., Hot Spot: Sub-Saharan Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa (2010), p. 7:"A religion of Middle Eastern origin, Islam reached Africa via the northern region of the continent by ways of conquest. The Islamic wars of conquest that would lead to the Islamization of N Africa occurred first in Egypt, when in about 642 CE the land fell to the invading Muslim forces from Arabia. Over the next centuries, the residuum of the Maghreb would succumb to Jihadist armies...The notion of religion conversion, whether by forcefulness or peaceful means, is foreign to ethnic African beliefs...Islam, notwithstanding, did non become a religion of the masses by peaceful means. Forced conversion was an indispensable element of proselytization."
  54. ^ Eltis, David; Richardson, David (1997). Routes to slavery: direction, ethnicity, and mortality in the transatlantic slave trade. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN0-7146-4820-5.
  55. ^ Houk, James (1995). Spirits, Blood, and Drums: The Orisha Organized religion in Trinidad. Temple Academy Press. ISBN1566393507.

References [edit]

  • Information presented here was gleaned from World Eras Encyclopaedia, Book 10, edited by Pierre-Damien Mvuyekure (New York: Thomson-Gale, 2003), in particular pp. 275–314.
  • Baldick, J (1997) Black God: The Afroasiatic Roots of the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Religions. New York: Syracuse University Printing.
  • Doumbia, A. & Doumbia, Due north (2004) The Way of the Elders: W African Spirituality & Tradition. Saint Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.
  • Ehret, Christopher, (2002) The Civilizations of Africa: a History to 1800. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
  • Ehret, Christopher, An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400, folio 159, University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-2057-4
  • Karade, B (1994) The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. York Beach, MA: Samuel Weiser Inc.
  • P'Bitek, Okot. African Religions and Western Scholarship. Kampala: East African Literature Bureau, 1970.
  • Princeton Online, History of Africa
  • Wiredu, Kwasi Toward Decolonizing African Philosophy And Religion in African Studies Quarterly, The Online Periodical for African Studies, Volume 1, Upshot 4, 1998

Further reading [edit]

  • Encyclopedia of African Religion, - Molefi Asante, Sage Publications, 2009 ISBN 1412936365
  • Abimbola, Wade (ed. and trans., 1977). Ifa Divination Poesy NOK, New York).
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External links [edit]

  • Media related to Traditional African religions at Wikimedia Eatables
  • African Comparative Belief
  • Afrika world.net A website with all-encompassing links and data about traditional African religions [ expressionless link ]
  • Baba Alawoye.com Baba'Awo Awoyinfa Ifaloju, showcasing Ifa using web media 2.0 (blogs, podcasting, video & photocasting) [ dead link ]
  • culture-commutation.blog/animism-mod-africa An article explaining the parallels betwixt traditional and modernistic religious practices in Africa

cheeketreas1959.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_African_religions